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Circular economy vision for local development
focused on waste derived from two agricultural
crops in Ecuador
Visión de la economía circular para el desarrollo local
enfocado en residuos derivados de dos cultivos agrícolas
en Ecuador
Fernando Torres Álava
*
Fernando Guerrero
*
Cesar Varas Maenza
*
Tito Solis Barros
*
ABSTRACT
The circular economy is a fundamental axis to
achieve sustainable development, applying these
principles to the agricultural sector is essential,
especially in countries that produce raw materials
such as Ecuador. The objective of this research is to
establish the use of residues derived from two
agricultural crops in Ecuador, under a circular
economy vision for local development. The inductive
and deductive method was applied, the variables
considered are the production of sugar cane and rice,
based on this, the analytical method was used where
the information obtained through surveys,
interviews, literature review and data collected was
interpreted. The results found show that sugar cane
(Saccharum officinarum) cultivation in Ecuador
represents 9% of the national agricultural GDP, and
in the last decade an average of 81.5 ton/year*ha-1
*
Msc. Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo, Master's Program in
Local Development, Quevedo, Ecuador, ftorresa@uteq.edu.ec;
https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5581-9123
*
Msc. Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo, Master's Degree
Program in Local Development, Quevedo, Ecuador,
fguerrero@uteq.edu.ec; https://orcid.org/0000-0003-2215-3115
*
Msc. Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo, Master's Degree
Program in Local Development, Quevedo, Ecuador,
cvarasm@uteq.edu.ec; https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7254-7257
*
Msc. Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo, Master's Degree
Program in Local Development, Quevedo, Ecuador,
tsolisb@uteq.edu.ec; https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6159-6536
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10
was cultivated, with an annual waste amount of
79,32283.38 ton*year-1 that represents an energy
potential of 15746.26 TJ*year-1, On the other hand,
rice (Oryza sativa) cultivation was cultivated with an
average of 25.33 ton*year-1 at the national level,
generating 2106695.86 ton*year-1 of annual residues
of rice straw and husk, its energy potential of
28356.98 TJ*year-1. It is a real challenge in the
country to opt for tools for the use of rice residues,
since, although it is true that there are agroindustrial
companies that have them, but there has not been an
optimal organization in terms of waste generation
with small producers engaged in this activity.
however, despite the fact that the residues derived
from these two add up to a great energy potential at
the national level, it continues to be a challenge for
Ecuador at present.
Keywords: sustainable development; energy
potential; production process; waste.
RESUMEN
La economía circular es un eje fundamental para alcanzar el desarrollo sostenible, aplicar
estos principios al sector agropecuario resulta fundamental, sobre todo en países
productores de materias primas como el caso de Ecuador, siendo el objetivo de la
presente investigación establecer el aprovechamiento de los residuos derivados de dos
cultivos agrícolas en Ecuador, bajo una visión de la economía circular para el desarrollo
local. Se aplicó el método inductivo y deductivo, las variables consideradas son la
producción de caña de azúcar y arroz, en función a ello se empleó el método analítico
donde se interpretó la información obtenida mediante encuestas, entrevista, revisión
bibliográfica y datos recopilados. Los resultados encontrados demuestran que el cultivo
de caña de azúcar (Saccharum officinarum ), en Ecuador representa el 9% del PIB agrícola
nacional, y en la última década se cultivó una media de 81,5 ton año*ha-1, con una
cantidad de residuos anuales de 793283,38 ton*año-1 que representan un potencial
energético 15746,26 TJ*año-1, Por otro lado, el cultivo de arroz (Oryza sativa) se cultivó
con una media de 25.33 ton*año-1 a nivel nacional, generando 2106695,86 ton*año-1 de
residuos anuales de paja y cascarilla de arroz, su potencial energético de 28356,98
TJ*año-1. Es un verdadero reto en el país optar por herramientas de aprovechamiento
para los residuos del arroz, ya que, si bien es cierto, hay empresas agroindustriales que
cuentan con aquello, pero no se ha llevado una organización óptima en cuanto la
generación de residuos con los pequeños productores que se dedican a esta actividad.
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11
no obstante, a pesar de que los residuos derivados de estos dos suman un gran potencial
energético a nivel nacional continúa siendo un reto actualmente para Ecuador.
Palabras clave: desarrollo sostenible; potencial energético; proceso productivo;
residuos.
INTRODUCTION
In the world, food production in agricultural crops is estimated to increase to 70% and
100% in developed countries, due to the strong demand for food that is expected by the
year 2050 (FAO, 2011)However, the modern agricultural system is inefficient with waste
management; in Europe, 700 million tons of agri-food waste are generated each year.
(Toop et al., 2017)For this reason, the term sustainable agriculture sounds very
promising to combat the increasing scarcity of natural resources that has generated
concern in the world, despite the growing demand for food, the field of circular economy
in the agricultural sector has not yet been adapted efficiently. (Velasco-Muñoz et al.,
2021).
At the regional level (Latin America and the Caribbean), the circular economy is also
proposed as a sustainable alternative for the development of agriculture (Burgo
Bencomo et al., 2019). The main basis for applying circular economy principles to
agricultural practices in the region is to move to "sustainable organic agriculture"; among
the reasons is the lower degree of negative environmental impact generated by organic
agriculture compared to conventional agriculture. (Anderson & Álvarez, 2021).
However, the challenge lies in moving from large-scale agriculture, commodities and
energy crops that drive deforestation and biodiversity loss to regenerative food systems;
and how to create sustainable value chains for the new goods and services derived from
biodiversity assets. (Mulder & Albaladejo, 2020).
Despite the challenge suggested by moving to a sustainable agriculture model, this is
strictly necessary. According to FAO, in the region, 80% of the farms belong to family
farming, including more than 60 million people. (FAO, 2014). All this results in the region
consuming 9.3% of the pesticides used in the world and investing more than US$ 2.7
billion annually in pesticide imports. (Altieri & Nicholls, 2001). A specific case in the
region is Peru, which has an important competitive strength for the development of the
agricultural sector: biodiversity; however, the sector has developed under a linear
economic model that is reaching its limits, causing, among other things, the degradation
of soils due to this unsustainable model. (Altamirano et al., 2015).This model is reaching
its limits, causing, among other things, soil degradation due to this unsustainable model;
evidencing the importance of the search for a sustainable model over time.
On a national scale, the principles of circular economy in agriculture are still scarce,
especially in small farmers. For example, producers mention that organic fertilizers from
their perception have better performance, however, prices are usually high, which leads
to the continuity of the traditional method (use of chemical fertilizers). On the other
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hand, the useful organic residues generated in the production processes tend to be
unused. A case in point is in the canton of Caluma, province of Bolivar, where cocoa
shells are considered a waste product that is rarely used by farmers, much less by
factories. (Gómez & Zapata, 2020)..
This study presents the use of residues derived from two agricultural crops in Ecuador,
under a circular economy vision for local development. The production processes of
perennial (sugar cane) and transitory (rice) crops generate residues that are not fully
used for energy generation in Ecuador.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The inductive and deductive method was applied, using primary and secondary sources
of information and bibliographic information. The study analysis focuses on rice and sugar
cane crops as sources of solid waste generation that can be used in agricultural activities;
these crops are mostly concentrated in the province of Guayas and Los Ríos (Figure 1).
Information gathering techniques were used, using a questionnaire based on the current
regulations (Ministerial Agreement 061) of the Unified Text of Secondary Legislation,
and the information obtained from historical series was projected using the equation of
the straight line.
Figure 1. Rice and sugarcane producing provinces in Ecuador
To determine the current situation of the application of circular economy principles in
the sugarcane and rice production processes, the data provided by the Ministry of
Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries of Ecuador (MAGAP) in its Agricultural Public
Information System (SIPA) and Bioenergy Atlas of Ecuador was used as the main
information, obtaining the information in relation to the cultivated area and production
per year of the crops.
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RESULTS
The circular economy is a paradigm that seeks to generate economic progress while
protecting the environment and avoiding pollution. (Sandoval et al., 2017)It serves to
address the current problem of production models with increasingly high energy and
environmental costs. (Balboa & Somonte, 2014). Therefore, on the basis of the circular
economy, it is possible to affirm that agriculture as an economic sector must be governed
under the framework of sustainability in order to be able to sustain itself over time.
(Burgo Bencomo et al., 2019). applying ecological agriculture in harmony with nature
based on the understanding of resources as a composite organism . (Koch, 2015).
Therefore, the application of a sustainable model of agricultural production in Ecuador
is fundamental to contribute to the sustainable development of the country.
Use of residues derived from sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum) cultivation. Figure 2
shows the hectares produced from sugarcane in Ecuador, which shows that the smallest
cultivated area was in 2011 with 83,000 ha of production and the largest production was
in 2020 with 1,400,000 ha, and this trend is maintained in the current period.
Figure 2. Hectares cultivated with sugarcane in Ecuador. (MAGAP, 2020)
From the entire cultivated area, significant amounts of usable residues are generated for
the manufacture of various products. However, due to the great potential for utilization
and the economic return that this means, many grow sugarcane no longer with the
traditional intention (to produce refined sugar), but rather with the intention of
manufacturing biofuel, which has generally been considered an alternative; according to
data reported by (Salazar, 2014)from 2010 to 2013, the maximum number of hectares
cultivated for biofuel production was 8945 ha, precisely in 2013, a situation that is
presumed to have increased due to the boom in this type of fuel. The problem lies in
the fact that these cultivated hectares are intended for the production of biofuel, losing
the sense of the application of the principles of circular economy.
It is important to highlight the importance of this crop in the country based on figures
that reveal its weight in Ecuador's GDP. Sugarcane cultivation represents 9% of the
0 20000 40000 60000 80000 100000 120000 140000 160000
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Sugar cane cultivated area in specific hectares in Ecuador
Production (ha)
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14
national agricultural GDP. In relation to the amount of waste generated from this
productive process, and its respective energy potential, in the last decade an average of
81.5 tons per year*ha-1 was cultivated, with an annual waste amount of approximately
79,323,38 tons*year-1 in the entire national territory, representing an energy potential
of 15746.26 TJ*year-1. The complete summary of figures can be seen in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Production, residues and energy potential of sugarcane in Ecuador, 2021. (INP
et al., 2014; MAGAP, 2020).
Sugarcane production versus waste generated and energy potential, Ecuador.
The usable residues of this crop include branches, leaves and certain stems. In the
sugarcane agroindustrial process, bagasse, cachaza and filter sludge can be used. (Roca-
Pérez et al., 2017)The vinasse, which represents the largest organic residue of the
process, can be used by means of physical and chemical treatments. (Cajamarca et al.,
2018) Figure 3, it is possible to affirm that the cultivation of sugar cane is important in
Ecuadorian territory. (Wisuthiphaet & Napathorn, 2016). is important in Ecuadorian
territory. Due to the production process, it generates several usable residues that have
not been fully utilized.
The model of waste utilization in the harvesting and agroindustrial processes is of utmost
relevance in contributing to the sustainable development of the country; however, the
linear economy model is still present in this and other productive processes. In Ecuador,
78,07
94,06
77,48
71,59
85,16
98,48
82,76
81,64
75,89
76,00
79,02
81,53
0,00 50,00 100,00 150,00
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
Sugarcane production in
Ecuador 2010-2020 (tons per
hectare per year)
Annual production per hectare [annual
ton * ha^-1].
793283,38
8614529,364
15746,2
6
Amount of waste generated
per year (average) and its
energy potential
Residuos anuales [ton*año^-1]
Producción anual [ton*año^-1]
Potencial energético anual [TJ*año^-1 ]
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there are cases of success, as well as cases in which the adaptation to the new time of
sustainability has been a utopia. For example, the Ecuadorian company "El Ordeño" has
adapted a production model by manufacturing cardboard packaging from sugarcane
bagasse. (Ortiz Tinoco et al., 2021)However, there are also complications when the
amount of bagasse produced is excessive, as is the case in the canton of Baños de Agua
Santo, where 1.44 t/day of this waste is produced, which generates negative impacts to
the environment (Moreno et al., 2012) The canton does not have the
capacity/infrastructure to take advantage of its energy potential (the entire amount of
waste generated), and its final destination is the canton itself, increasing environmental
problems.
On the other hand, an efficient alternative for bagasse utilization is the cogeneration of
energy to feed high-pressure boilers in sugar consortiums where this waste is generated.
(Verdezoto et al., 2021)A great example is Azucarera Valdez, which generates energy
from this waste. However, in spite of the large amount of sugar cane production, which
results in a large amount of waste and great usable energy potential, there are few
sources of energy from this waste. (INP et al., 2014)However, there are few sources
that operate with such low environmental impact fuels as the one generated from
sugarcane bagasse. (CONELEC, 2013). Another case is the organic residue of vinasse
(produced in the agro-industrial process of sugar cane). In Ecuador, this residue is
produced in large quantities in this process and is used for biofuel production. However,
local consumers do not like it because of its cost, and it is more widely purchased abroad.
(Cajamarca et al., 2018). On the other hand, biofuel from sugar cane is one of Ecuador's
main commitments to sustainability. The problem lies in the fact that most of this biofuel
production is done in a specific and intentional way; that is, it is not based on an integral
use of other productive processes and the waste generated there.
From the results described above, it is evident that despite the fact that there is a great
energy potential from the large amount of usable waste derived from the sugarcane
production process in Ecuador, it is not used in the expected potential way. However,
this is also the case in countries such as Colombia; according to (Zúñiga Cerón & Gandini
Ayerbe, 2013) The residues produced from the harvest, such as leaves and buds,
represent a contamination and health problem, so many are seeking to generate
alternatives for reusing these by-products. The same is true in Peru, where, according
to (Aldana et al., 2016) only 14.98% of the total hectares of sugarcane harvested in that
country are used, despite the fact that there is great energy potential from the by-
product residues. The problem in most of these sugarcane producing countries seems
to be the lack of technological capacity and infrastructure to use these residues; for
example, (Fleck Gallas, 2009) The problem in most of these sugar cane producing
countries seems to be the lack of technological capacity and infrastructure to utilize
these residues; for example, it mentions that the current sugar industries in Paraguay
are not efficient enough to generate surplus bagasse that could be used in a large-scale
utilization project.
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Use of residues from rice (oryza sativa) cultivation
In Ecuador, the provinces with the highest rice crop generation focus are Guayas, Los
Ríos, Loja and El Oro, with the most relevant production in 2013 with 380000 ha and
the lowest in 2017 and 2019 with 270000 ha (Figure 4).
Figure 4. Hectares cultivated with rice. (MAGAP, 2020)
Current outlook for the utilization of derived wastes
Based on the initial perspective, it is important to highlight the importance of this crop
in the country from figures that reveal its weight in Ecuador's GDP, as well as the large
amount of waste generated in the production process; by virtue of this, rice cultivation
during the last eleven years has managed to reach an average production value of 25.33
ton*year-1 at the national level, contributing with an amount of 210,6,695.86 ton*year-
1 of annual rice straw and husk residues, resulting in an energy potential of 28,356.98
TJ*year-1 (Figure 5).
0 100000 200000 300000 400000 500000
2010
2012
2014
2016
2018
2020
Rice cultivated area in specific hectares in
Ecuador
Production (ha)
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Figure 5. Rice production versus waste generated and energy potential, Ecuador.
(MAGAP, 2020; Salazar, 2014).
Principles of circular economy in the rice production process
The current trend is oriented towards sustainability; therefore, it is necessary to find
efficient and environmentally friendly processes to give added value to agroindustrial
wastes that generate pollution, such as rice husks in a rice producing country like
Ecuador. (Zambrano et al., 2021)..
A case study based on the above is located in the rice mills of the provinces of Guayas,
Los Ríos and Loja, where the average between these provinces is 2,453 t/month in
relation to rice husk production. Through an analyzed study, it indicates that rice husk
waste has a high percentage of 90% silicon, which shows that it is a reusable component
for the production of photovoltaic solar cells, with the objective of providing an added
value and minimizing the environmental damage caused by uncontrolled open-air
incineration. (López et al., 2021).
On the other hand, there is a case study for the use of rice husks in large agroindustrial
mills located in Ecuador, which is, obtaining cellulosic fibers for the formation of Kraft
32,06
2106695,86
1597627,36
28356,98
Amount of waste generated per year
(average) and its energy potential
Residuos anuales [ton*año^-1]
Producción anual [ton*año^-1]
Potencial energético anual [TJ*año^-1 ]
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paper fibers. Rice husk contains in its structure about 35 to 40% of cellulose, 15 to 20%
of hemicellulose and 20 to 25% of lignin. (Gao et al., 2018). Among its physicochemical
characteristics, it has a density of 1.125 kg/m3, with a calorific value of 1 kg of rice husk
of 3300 kcal, which shows great importance in the use of rice husk. (LLanos et al., 2016).
Lignocellulosic residues from rice cultivation are mainly composed of rice husks.
Therefore, with a yield of 50% bio-oil for rice there is a potential production of 16,394
tons respectively, and with a percentage of 75% bio-oil there is a production of 24,592
tons for rice in bio-oil generation. Likewise, in the potential production of biochar it is
obtained that with a yield of 12%. These considerable quantities of bio-oil and biochar
can have diverse applications, generating economic income. Bio-oil has several
applications in the field of energy and fuels. (Ferrer et al., 2020).
Rice hulls are mostly incinerated in-situ by small farmers, causing an impact on the
environment due to polluting emissions to the environment. A year 1'493,702 tons of
rice hulls are generated in Ecuador. (Torres et al., 2015)According to a case study
conducted in the canton of Quevedo, province of Los Ríos, rice hulls are an agricultural
product used in animal feed by small farmers; in perspective, rice hulls have the following
components for animal feed: dry matter (DM), gross energy (GE), crude protein (CP),
ethereal extract (EE), crude fiber (CF), ash (C) and calcium (Ca). (Torres Navarrete et
al., 2017)..
Most of the waste generated is not used, generating abundant pollution when burned or
abandoned, which is why several international studies indicate the following; (Huang &
Lo, 2018) They mention that rice husks are very common crop residues and that they
provide raw materials for obtaining biomass, and that rice husks are superior to rice
straw by approximately 3% (dry basis), which means that the proportion of fuel from
rice straw is higher than that of rice husks by approximately 3%. Rice husk and rice straw
are useful for activated carbon as they serve the applicability of removing impurities and
contaminations. In addition, (Goodman, 2020) The rice husk and rice straw are used
very little and are still incinerated at the production site, however, these lignocellulosic
materials have potentially considerable values such as: cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin and
silica. This is why rice husks are often used for the generation of ethanol, biogas and bio-
oils.
Biomass potential in rice cultivation
This crop generates a large amount of biomass that can be used as energy by applying
the circular economy. (FAO, 2013)The result of this is reflected in the 50% contribution
to national energy; therefore, rice straw and husk residues are used, generating an
energy production of 2.11 Mmt/year in relation to the 18.23 Mmt/year of residual
biomass by the agricultural sector, being the third crop that contributes the most to
biomass energy generation after African palm and bananas. (Vargas-García et al., 2021).
In 2011, the Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean of the Food and
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations published a study "State of the art and
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news on bioenergy in Ecuador", which highlights the policy to promote a change in the
forms of common energies, guaranteeing the rights of nature, promoting the use of
lignocellulosic biomass generated through rice and corn crop residues. (Orejuela-
Escobar et al., 2021)..
At the national level, the energy use of agricultural residues does not yet have a great
impact; however, residues such as rice are used due to their high lignocellulose content
and their physical-chemical characteristics, implementing thermochemical
transformations methods (Casas-Jiménez et al., 2021). Ecuador generates an amount of
2,106,696.00 tons of rice residues that are used for energy recovery, which are subjected
to the technological process to obtain electric energy through the biomass used from
these lignocellulosic material residues, as shown in Figure 6. (Calderón Loor et al.,
2017)..
Figure 6. Technological process for obtaining energy from biomass.
Bioplastic generation in Ecuador: Case Study
The waste from rice processing is on average 20% of its production, indicating that every
100 kg of rice produces 20 kg of husk, with this volume of waste generated, small
companies in the country could raise a process of the development of bioplastics on a
smaller scale, which would function as an opportunity to create environmentally friendly
ecological measures, In this case study it is proposed to use cellulose as a biodegradable
polysaccharide from which cellophane films can be formed, purifying the residues of
Biomass
Lignocellulosic material
Transformations
Thermochemicals
Gasification
Combustion
Synthesis gases (CO/H2)
Exhaust gases
Fuel cells, alternator, steam cycles, gas turbines, gas turbines, etc.
Electric power
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lignin, pectin and hemicelluloses, which being materials with fiber content hinder the
creation of biofilms, giving volume for the creation of the bioplastic. (Riera et al., 2018).
The results obtained from the generation of biomass in Ecuador from rice crop residues
indicated that rice straw and husk generate an energy production of 2.11 Mmt/year; they
also (Lim et al., 2012) They also indicated that globally, 685 million tons of rice straw
and 137 million tons of rice husks are generated annually, which contribute to the
generation of 1,800 million liters of bioethanol from lignocellulosic biomass; (Arevalo et
al., 2017) proposed in Peru a sustainable energy model for the use of rice residues to
produce biomass briquettes to supply energy to domestic sectors and seek to replace
non-renewable energy sources; (Biswas et al., 2017) indicates that one of the problems
for countries including Ecuador not to adopt biomass as one of the main sources of
energy is that the yield of rice husk and straw is only 28.4% and 38.1% respectively,
causing low power levels in the production of energy through pyrolysis.
CONCLUSIONS
The residues derived from sugar cane cultivation, as well as from its agroindustrial
process, add up to a great energy potential at the national level; however, its use in
multiple sectors of the country continues to be a challenge (of considerable boom in
Ecuador), losing the sense of the principles of circular economy, added to the fact that
there is no technological capacity for the use of this type of residues, a minority group
does have infrastructure for biofuel production which has generated economic income.
Rice cultivation in Ecuador is very representative because it has a significant trend of
waste in terms of rice husk and rice straw, and it is necessary to integrate efficient and
environmentally friendly processes to reduce pollution; however, it is a real challenge in
the country to opt for these tools because although it is true that there are agroindustrial
companies that have them, there has not been an optimal organization in terms of waste
generation with small rice growers. In addition, it is shown that rice husk and straw
residues are not fully utilized for energy generation in Ecuador, because these residues
only contribute with a yield of 28.4% and 38.1% respectively, causing the country not to
apply a circular economy for the final disposal of these residues in this context of local
development.
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